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Like other large domesticates, modern dogs exhibit an increased brain-to-body-size ratio (termed encephalization). This latter approach demonstrated that principal component 1 (PC1) explained ∼76% of skull variance among skulls that were measured and described the continuum of morphological changes extending between brachycephalic and dolichocephalic dog breeds.

In practice, the strong LD within dog breeds is a double-edged sword: GWAS are quite successful at finding genetic associations; however, the resulting critical intervals are often extensive LD blocks that can extend hundreds of kilobases or more.

It is also important to note that morphometric approaches to quantifying shape variation have a strong bearing on what skull traits can be QTL-mapped. With the advent of the Kennel Club in 1873, lineages became standardized by appellation, bloodline, appearance, and behavior. In dogs, a number of craniofacial anomalies can contribute to brachycephaly, including a reduction in the length of bones that form the rostrum, chondrodysplasia of the cranial base, and changes in the palate position relative to the cranial base ( Figure 2; Huber 1974; Nussbaumer 1978). Turning off the personalised advertising setting won’t stop you from seeing Etsy ads, but it may make the ads you see less relevant or more repetitive.

Curiously, Scottish terriers were also fixed for the mutation, despite their dolichocephalic skull conformation. More conservative estimates are based on archaeological records, which indicate that dog domestication began somewhere between 15,000 and 36,000 years ago (see summary by Larson et al. Identification of causative genetic mechanisms will also enable inference of the evolution of dog skull shape and provide insight regarding the demographics of wolves or ancestral dogs from which this variation emerged. Animal models such as mice and zebrafish can provide means of testing variant functionality though transgenesis, exogenous overexpression, and knockdown.Previous studies suggested that hypermutable tandem repeats or SINE element activity could be drivers of dogs’ continuously evolving morphology; however, uncertainty as to what extent such mechanisms actually contribute to morphological diversity remains ( Fondon and Garner 2004; Wang and Kirkness 2005; Cordaux and Batzer 2006; Fondon and Garner 2007; Laidlaw et al.